(In)Appropriate language when writing an academic text

Boosting and the nuances of hedging

Boosting

💡 When writing an academic (formal) text, avoid intensifiers - see Understanding Intensifiers.

Boosting is a rhetorical device that is used to express confidence in a claim or statement. It is often (over)used in academic writing, but can be used in any type of writing. Boosters are words or phrases that add emphasis or intensity to a statement. Some common boosters that should be avoided when writing an academic text include: certainly, indeed, always, undoubtably, in fact, clearly, actually, obviously, know, prove, conclusively, definitely, evidently, etc.

Boosters can add weight to an argument, to make a statement more persuasive, or to simply express confidence in a claim. However, use boosters sparingly (if at all), as they can make your writing sound arrogant or boastful.

Here are some examples of how boosters can be used in writing (which typically should be avoided when writing an academic text):

“The evidence clearly (or obviously, etc.) shows that climate change is real.”
“I know for a fact that this is the best way to do it.”
“This is undoubtedly the most important decision you will ever make.” When writing an academic text try to avoid boosting altogether unless the claim where the boosting occurs comes from a study (i.e., requiring a citation). In creative writing (poetry, short stories, novels, etc.) boosting is common and perfectly acceptable.
Avoid very: “ For English language teachers, it is very important to implement the correct strategies in the classroom in order to ensure the learning of each student.”
Absolutes or exaggerations: never, always, everyone, no one, it is true…, it is a fact…, it is a perfect way…, without a doubt*…, etc.*
Subjective phrasing*:* It is important, it is vital, it is essential, it is crucial, etc.
Demonstratives: this, that, these those

Here are some tips for avoiding overuse of boosters in your writing: - Read your work aloud to yourself. This will help you to identify any areas where you are using too many boosters. - Ask a friend or colleague to read your work and give you feedback. - Get feedback from a writing tutor or instructor.

By following these tips, you can avoid overuse of boosters and improve the clarity and persuasiveness of your writing.

💡 The error code “BH” (See Writing Errors Code List.) refers to either boosting or hedging too much. When writing an academic text, the writer must balance between these two extremes: boosting which results in overgeneralizing claims and hedging which can make the writer sound less assertive.

Hedging

Hedging is a linguistic technique used in writing and speech to express caution or uncertainty, to soften statements, and to demonstrate politeness or diplomacy. It is particularly common in academic and professional contexts, where acknowledging the complexity of a topic or the limits of one’s findings is important. Here’s a detailed look at hedging and how to use it effectively:

When to Use Hedging

Presenting New Ideas or Theories: When suggesting ideas that are not yet widely accepted or are innovative.
Discussing Complex or Controversial Topics: Where there are multiple viewpoints or the evidence is not conclusive.
Interpreting Results: Particularly in research, where findings may not be definitive.
Writing in Scientific or Academic Contexts: To show that you are considering all possibilities and not overgeneralizing.
Demonstrating Politeness or Diplomacy: In professional communication, to avoid coming across as too direct or assertive.

How to Use Hedging

Use of Modal Verbs: Words like “might,” “could,” “may,” and “would” suggest possibility rather than certainty.
Employing Tentative Language: Phrases like “it seems that,” “it is possible that,” or “there appears to be” indicate uncertainty.
Incorporating Softening Adverbs: Words like “probably,” “perhaps,” “generally,” and “mostly” can soften a claim.
Qualifying Statements: Phrases like “to some extent,” “in some cases,” or “to a certain degree” indicate that a statement is not absolute.
Using Passive Voice: Can sometimes be used to depersonalize statements and reduce the emphasis on the actor.

Examples of Hedging

Modal Verbs:
1. Without Hedging: “This treatment eliminates the symptoms.”
2. With Hedging: “This treatment may reduce the symptoms.”
Tentative Language:
1. Without Hedging: “All experts agree that climate change is accelerating.”
2. With Hedging: “Most experts seem to agree that climate change is likely accelerating.”
Softening Adverbs:
1. Without Hedging: “Regular exercise significantly improves mental health.”
2. With Hedging: “Regular exercise probably improves mental health.”
Qualifying Statements:
1. Without Hedging: “Technology improves communication.”
2. With Hedging: “Technology can improve communication to some extent.”
Using Passive Voice:
1. Without Hedging: “Our study proves the theory.”
2. With Hedging: “The theory is supported by the findings of our study.”

Conclusion

Hedging is an important tool for writers who wish to convey their ideas accurately while acknowledging the complexity of their subject or the limitations of their knowledge. By using hedging appropriately, writers can make their writing more nuanced, credible, and respectful of different perspectives. It’s important, however, not to overuse hedging, as it can make statements overly vague or imply a lack of confidence in your own work. Balance is key.

Use “There is/are” sparingly

Avoiding “there is/are” forces the writer to write more descriptively, which should be the goal when writing a formal, academic text. Instead of simply saying that something exists - which is what the writer does when using “there is/are”, describe in greater detail what something is. When does it occur? How does it occur? With whom? When?, Where? etc.

Avoid Figurative Language Devices

(CLAR) Clarity and style

Metaphor, Simile, Personification, Hyperbole | Figurative Language Lesson Metaphor, Simile, Personification, Hyperbole | Figurative Language Lesson - Notes

Figurative language refers to a wide range of @literary literary devices and techniques.

Similes vs. Metaphors:
1. Simile: A simile compares two different things using the words “like” or “as”. Example: “Her smile was as bright as the sun.”
2. Metaphor: A metaphor also compares two different things but does so directly, without using “like” or “as”. Example: “Time is a thief.”
Personification vs. Anthropomorphism:
1. Personification: Assigning human characteristics to non-human entities or inanimate objects. Example: “The wind whispered through the trees.”
2. Anthropomorphism: Attributing human characteristics to animals or non-human beings, often in a narrative context. Example: In “Animal Farm,” the animals talk and behave like humans.
Onomatopoeia: Words that imitate the sound they represent. Example: “The bees buzzed in the garden.”
Oxymoron: A figure of speech that combines contradictory terms. Example: “Bittersweet.”
Hyperbole: Exaggerated statements not meant to be taken literally. Example: “I’m so hungry I could eat a horse.”
Allusion: An indirect reference to a person, place, thing, or idea of historical, cultural, literary, or political significance. Example: “He was a real Romeo with the ladies.”
Idiom: A phrase or expression whose meaning can’t be understood from the individual meanings of its elements. Example: “It’s raining cats and dogs.”
Imagery: Descriptive language that appeals to the senses. Example: “The golden, crispy leaves crunched underfoot.”
Symbolism: Using symbols to represent ideas or qualities. Example: In literature, a dove often symbolizes peace.
Alliteration: Repetition of the same sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words. Example: “Susy sells seashells by the seashore.”
Assonance: Repetition of vowel sounds within words close to each other. Example: “The light of the fire is a sight.”
Consonance: Repetition of consonant sounds, typically at the end of words. Example: “The ship has sailed to the far off shores.”
Metonymy: Substituting the name of an attribute or feature for the name of the thing itself. Example: “The White House announced new policies.”
Synecdoche: A figure of speech in which a part represents the whole, or the whole for a part. Example: “All hands on deck.”
Irony: Expressing meaning by using language that typically signifies the opposite, often for humorous or emphatic effect. Example: A fire station burns down.
Sarcasm: The use of irony to mock or convey contempt. Example: “Great, another rainy day,” said when someone is disappointed about the weather.
Litotes: An understatement in which the negative of its contrary expresses an affirmative. Example: “He’s not the worst singer.”
Pun: A joke exploiting the different possible meanings of a word. Example: “I used to be a baker, but I couldn’t make enough dough.”
Anaphora: The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses. Example: “Every day, every night, in every way, I am getting better.”
Tautology: A statement that repeats itself redundantly and unnecessarily. Example: “Free gift.”
Understatement: Presenting something as being smaller or less important than it actually is. Example: “It’s just a scratch,” referring to a large dent on a car.

Takeaway

The opposite of figurative language is literal language, which is language with little-to-no imagination or exaggeration. Creative writing employs rich examples of figurative language to communicate better meaning while . When writing poetry, for instance, stick to (a metaphor) primarily figurative language.😀

writing an academic text is best when language is literal

My suggestion would be to find examples of each of the following literary devices listed above and begin to practice matching each to their respective type: simile, metaphor, personification, onomatopoeia, oxymoron, hyperbole, allusion, idiom, imagery, symbolism, alliteration, assonance, consonance, metonymy, synecdoche, irony, sarcasm, litotes, pun, anaphora, tautology, and understatement.

Examples

42 Idiom Origins - mental_floss on YouTube (Ep. 29)42 Idiom Origins - mental_floss on YouTube (Ep. 29) - Notes

The art of the metaphor - Jane Hirshfield The art of the metaphor - Jane Hirshfield - Notes

Misc videos

Dos and Don’ts in Academic Writing (APA, 7th edition)Dos and Don’ts in Academic Writing (APA, 7th edition) - Notes

💡 Review the list of Dos and Don’ts below when completing the first and final drafts.

Active vs. passive voice: Choosing clarity in academic writing

Active vs Passive Voice in Your Writing Active vs Passive Voice in Your Writing - Notes

Active voice and passive voice are two ways to structure a sentence with different implications for emphasis and clarity. In academic writing, active voice is generally preferred for its directness and focus on the doer of the action.

Active Voice:

Subject performs the action: “The researchers conducted the experiment.”
Emphasis on the subject: “We argue that the findings support the hypothesis.”
Conciseness: Often shorter than passive voice sentences.

Passive Voice:

Action is performed on the subject: “The experiment was conducted by the researchers.”
Emphasis on the action or object: “The hypothesis was supported by the findings.”
Wordiness: Often longer than active voice sentences.

Why Active Voice is Preferred in Academic Writing:

Clarity: Active voice sentences are typically clearer and easier to understand, as the subject and its action are readily identified.
Directness: Active voice makes your writing sound more assertive and engaging, conveying authority and ownership of your ideas.
Conciseness: Active voice sentences are often shorter and more to the point, improving the flow and readability of your text.
Focus on agency: Academic writing emphasizes critical thinking and analysis. Active voice helps highlight the actors and agents involved in research and discussions.

Exceptions to the Rule:

While active voice is generally preferred, there are some instances where passive voice might be appropriate:

Emphasis on the action or object: When the focus is on the action itself rather than the doer, passive voice can be effective. For example, “The data was analyzed using statistical software.”
When the subject is unknown or unimportant: If the subject is unclear or irrelevant, passive voice can be a suitable option. For example, “The study was approved by the ethics committee.”
Variety: To avoid monotony, it’s okay to occasionally use passive voice for stylistic variation. However, ensure it doesn’t obscure meaning or weaken the overall impact of your writing.

Remember: The choice between active and passive voice depends on the context and your intentions. When in doubt, opt for active voice for clarity, directness, and a more effective delivery of your academic ideas.

Bonus Tip: Use powerful verbs and strong sentence structures to further enhance the impact of your active voice writing.

Sexist and other biased language

Avoiding sexist and other biased language in formal writing is crucial for ensuring inclusivity and respect for diverse perspectives. Here are some key ways to achieve this: Awareness - Recognize your own biases: All humans have unconscious biases. Reflect on your own background and the messages you’ve internalized to identify your biases and potentially blind spots. - Identify common biases: Familiarize yourself with common types of bias, such as sexism, racism, ageism, ableism, and homophobia.

Language choices

Gender-neutral language: Use gender-neutral language instead of assuming gender. Use “they” as a singular pronoun, replace gendered nouns with inclusive terms, and avoid unnecessary gendered modifiers.
Inclusive nouns and pronouns: Use terms that encompass everyone, such as “people,” “humanity,” “staff,” or “students” instead of gendered or exclusive terms.
Active voice: Prefer active voice to passive voice, as it highlights the actor and avoids potentially gendered pronouns.
Focus on merit and abilities: When describing individuals, focus on their skills, qualifications, and contributions rather than physical appearance or gender.
Avoid stereotypes and generalizations: Don’t make assumptions about individuals based on their group affiliation. Avoid language that reinforces negative stereotypes about any group.
“When referring to individuals whose identified pronouns are not known or when the gender of the generic or hypothetical person is irrelevant within the context, use the singular ´they´ to avoid making assumptions about an individual’s gender; avoid using combinations such as ´he or she´ and ´(s)he´ as alternatives to the singular ´they´” (Publication Manual of the APA, 2020, p. 140).

Additional tips

Use respectful language: Avoid offensive or discriminatory language, even if it’s not explicitly targeting a specific group.
Consult references: Use style guides and dictionaries that offer guidance on inclusive language.
Read critically: Review your writing with a critical eye, searching for potential biases and opportunities for improvement.
Seek feedback: Get feedback from diverse readers who can point out any unintentional biases in your writing.

Remember: Avoiding biased language is a continuous process. It requires both awareness and practice. By implementing these tips and fostering a critical mindset, you can write formal texts that are inclusive and respectful of all individuals and groups.

Here are some resources for further learning:

APA Style APA Style - Notes

National Center for Women & Information Technology: https://ncwit.org/
GLAAD Media Reference Guide: https://glaad.org/reference/trans-terms/

Benjamin L. Stewart

Explorer