# Boosting and the nuances of hedging ## Boosting <aside> 💡 When writing an academic (formal) text, avoid intensifiers - see [**Understanding Intensifiers**](https://www.notion.so/Understanding-Intensifiers-347127041295485e800fd9a86e5a5a73?pvs=21). </aside> Boosting is a rhetorical device that is used to express confidence in a claim or statement. It is often (over)used in academic writing, but can be used in any type of writing. Boosters are words or phrases that add emphasis or intensity to a statement. Some common boosters _**that should be avoided when writing an academic text**_ include: _certainly, indeed, always, undoubtably, in fact, clearly, actually, obviously, know, prove, conclusively, definitely, evidently,_ etc. Boosters can add weight to an argument, to make a statement more persuasive, or to simply express confidence in a claim. However, use boosters sparingly (if at all), as they can make your writing sound arrogant or boastful. Here are some examples of how boosters can be used in writing (_which typically should be avoided when writing an academic text_): - “The evidence **clearly** (or obviously, sadly, etc.) shows that climate change is real.” - “I know for **a fact** that this is the best way to do it.” - “This is **undoubtedly** the most important decision you will ever make.” When writing an academic text try to avoid boosting altogether unless the claim where the boosting occurs comes from a study (i.e., requiring a citation). In creative writing (poetry, short stories, novels, etc.) boosting is common and perfectly acceptable. - Avoid _very_: “ For English language teachers, it is **very** **important** to implement the correct strategies in the classroom in order to ensure the learning of each student.” See [Why avoid “very”?](https://www.notion.so/Why-avoid-very-af07282b5bf84ee8b7e60cc6a5ef1081?pvs=21). - **Absolutes or exaggerations**: _never, always, everyone, no one, it is true…, it is a fact…, it is a perfect way…, without a doubt…, etc._ - _**Subjective phrasing**: It is important, it is vital, it is essential, it is crucial, etc. - [Demonstratives](https://www.notion.so/Demonstratives-295830c0fb7e440ca442b8ef372bde38?pvs=21): this, that, these those_ Here are some tips for avoiding overuse of boosters in your writing: - Read your work aloud to yourself. This will help you to identify any areas where you are using too many boosters. - Ask a friend or colleague to read your work and give you feedback. - Get feedback from a writing tutor or instructor. By following these tips, you can avoid overuse of boosters and improve the clarity and persuasiveness of your writing. <aside> 💡 The error code “BH” (See Writing Errors Code List.) refers to either boosting or hedging too much. When writing an academic text, the writer must balance between these two extremes: boosting which results in overgeneralizing claims and hedging which can make the writer sound less assertive. </aside> ## Hedging Hedging is a linguistic technique used in writing and speech to express caution or uncertainty, to soften statements, and to demonstrate politeness or diplomacy. It is particularly common in academic and professional contexts, where acknowledging the complexity of a topic or the limits of one’s findings is important. Here’s a detailed look at hedging and how to use it effectively: ### When to Use Hedging 1. **Presenting New Ideas or Theories:** When suggesting ideas that are not yet widely accepted or are innovative. 2. **Discussing Complex or Controversial Topics:** Where there are multiple viewpoints or the evidence is not conclusive. 3. **Interpreting Results:** Particularly in research, where findings may not be definitive. 4. **Writing in Scientific or Academic Contexts:** To show that you are considering all possibilities and not overgeneralizing. 5. **Demonstrating Politeness or Diplomacy:** In professional communication, to avoid coming across as too direct or assertive. ### How to Use Hedging 1. **Use of Modal Verbs:** Words like “might,” “could,” “may,” and “would” suggest possibility rather than certainty. 2. **Employing Tentative Language:** Phrases like “it seems that,” “it is possible that,” or “there appears to be” indicate uncertainty. 3. **Incorporating Softening Adverbs:** Words like “probably,” “perhaps,” “generally,” and “mostly” can soften a claim. 4. **Qualifying Statements:** Phrases like “to some extent,” “in some cases,” or “to a certain degree” indicate that a statement is not absolute. 5. **Using Passive Voice:** Can sometimes be used to depersonalize statements and reduce the emphasis on the actor. ### Examples of Hedging 1. **Modal Verbs:** 1. Without Hedging: “This treatment eliminates the symptoms.” 2. With Hedging: “This treatment may reduce the symptoms.” 2. **Tentative Language:** 1. Without Hedging: “All experts agree that climate change is accelerating.” 2. With Hedging: “Most experts seem to agree that climate change is likely accelerating.” 3. **Softening Adverbs:** 1. Without Hedging: “Regular exercise significantly improves mental health.” 2. With Hedging: “Regular exercise probably improves mental health.” 4. **Qualifying Statements:** 1. Without Hedging: “Technology improves communication.” 2. With Hedging: “Technology can improve communication to some extent.” 5. **Using Passive Voice:** 1. Without Hedging: “Our study proves the theory.” 2. With Hedging: “The theory is supported by the findings of our study.” ## Conclusion Hedging is an important tool for writers who wish to convey their ideas accurately while acknowledging the complexity of their subject or the limitations of their knowledge. By using hedging appropriately, writers can make their writing more nuanced, credible, and respectful of different perspectives. It’s important, however, not to overuse hedging, as it can make statements overly vague or imply a lack of confidence in your own work. Balance is key. # Use “There is/are” sparingly Avoiding “there is/are” forces the writer to write more descriptively, which should be the goal when writing a formal, academic text. Instead of simply saying that something exists - which is what the writer does when using “there is/are”, describe in greater detail what something is. When does it occur? How does it occur? With whom? When?, Where? etc. # Avoid Figurative Language Devices [Clarity and style](https://www.notion.so/uaabaelt/Clarity%20and%20style) [Clarity and Style](https://www.notion.so/Clarity-and-Style-64eab73fec43408c9ee7995ccd67f602?pvs=21) [https://youtu.be/NegoYIuXoEA](https://youtu.be/NegoYIuXoEA) Figurative language refers to a wide range of [literary devices](https://literarydevices.net/literary-devices/) and techniques. 1. **Similes vs. Metaphors**: 1. **Simile**: A simile compares two different things using the words “like” or “as”. Example: “Her smile was as bright as the sun.” 2. **Metaphor**: A metaphor also compares two different things but does so directly, without using “like” or “as”. Example: “Time is a thief.” 2. **Personification vs. Anthropomorphism**: 1. **Personification**: Assigning human characteristics to non-human entities or inanimate objects. Example: “The wind whispered through the trees.” 2. **Anthropomorphism**: Attributing human characteristics to animals or non-human beings, often in a narrative context. Example: In “Animal Farm,” the animals talk and behave like humans. 3. **Onomatopoeia**: Words that imitate the sound they represent. Example: “The bees buzzed in the garden.” 4. **Oxymoron**: A figure of speech that combines contradictory terms. Example: “Bittersweet.” 5. **Hyperbole**: Exaggerated statements not meant to be taken literally. Example: “I’m so hungry I could eat a horse.” 6. **Allusion**: An indirect reference to a person, place, thing, or idea of historical, cultural, literary, or political significance. Example: “He was a real Romeo with the ladies.” 7. **Idiom**: A phrase or expression whose meaning can’t be understood from the individual meanings of its elements. Example: “It’s raining cats and dogs.” 8. **Imagery**: Descriptive language that appeals to the senses. Example: “The golden, crispy leaves crunched underfoot.” 9. **Symbolism**: Using symbols to represent ideas or qualities. Example: In literature, a dove often symbolizes peace. 10. **Alliteration**: Repetition of the same sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words. Example: “Susy sells seashells by the seashore.” 11. **Assonance**: Repetition of vowel sounds within words close to each other. Example: “The light of the fire is a sight.” 12. **Consonance**: Repetition of consonant sounds, typically at the end of words. Example: “The ship has sailed to the far off shores.” 13. **Metonymy**: Substituting the name of an attribute or feature for the name of the thing itself. Example: “The White House announced new policies.” 14. **Synecdoche**: A figure of speech in which a part represents the whole, or the whole for a part. Example: “All hands on deck.” 15. **Irony**: Expressing meaning by using language that typically signifies the opposite, often for humorous or emphatic effect. Example: A fire station burns down. 16. **Sarcasm**: The use of irony to mock or convey contempt. Example: “Great, another rainy day,” said when someone is disappointed about the weather. 17. **Litotes**: An understatement in which the negative of its contrary expresses an affirmative. Example: “He’s not the worst singer.” 18. **Pun**: A joke exploiting the different possible meanings of a word. Example: “I used to be a baker, but I couldn’t make enough dough.” 19. **Anaphora**: The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses. Example: “Every day, every night, in every way, I am getting better.” 20. **Tautology**: A statement that repeats itself redundantly and unnecessarily. Example: “Free gift.” 21. **Understatement**: Presenting something as being smaller or less important than it actually is. Example: “It’s just a scratch,” referring to a large dent on a car. ## Takeaway The opposite of figurative language is literal language, which is language with little-to-no imagination or exaggeration. Creative writing employs rich examples of figurative language to communicate better meaning while . When writing poetry, for instance, _stick to_ (a metaphor) primarily figurative language.[😀](https://www.remnote.com/doc/5TjivPzDpc0JL9FCN?isPin=false) writing an academic text is best when language is literal My suggestion would be to find examples of each of the following literary devices listed above and begin to practice matching each to their respective type: simile, metaphor, personification, onomatopoeia, oxymoron, hyperbole, allusion, idiom, imagery, symbolism, alliteration, assonance, consonance, metonymy, synecdoche, irony, sarcasm, litotes, pun, anaphora, tautology, and understatement. ## Examples [https://youtu.be/WW5FDhsHkUg](https://youtu.be/WW5FDhsHkUg) [https://youtu.be/A0edKgL9EgM](https://youtu.be/A0edKgL9EgM) ## Misc videos [https://youtu.be/Rm9Cb2b7Gnc](https://youtu.be/Rm9Cb2b7Gnc) <aside> 💡 Review the list of Dos and Don'ts below when completing the first and final drafts. </aside> # Active vs. passive voice: Choosing clarity in academic writing [https://youtu.be/TZd7rDVNi58](https://youtu.be/TZd7rDVNi58) **Active voice** and **passive voice** are two ways to structure a sentence with different implications for emphasis and clarity. In academic writing, **active voice is generally preferred** for its directness and focus on the doer of the action. **Active Voice:** - Subject performs the action: “**The researchers** conducted the experiment.” - Emphasis on the subject: “**We** argue that the findings support the hypothesis.” - Conciseness: Often shorter than passive voice sentences. **Passive Voice:** - Action is performed on the subject: “The experiment was conducted by **the researchers**.” - Emphasis on the action or object: “The hypothesis was supported by the findings.” - Wordiness: Often longer than active voice sentences. **Why Active Voice is Preferred in Academic Writing:** - **Clarity:** Active voice sentences are typically clearer and easier to understand, as the subject and its action are readily identified. - **Directness:** Active voice makes your writing sound more assertive and engaging, conveying authority and ownership of your ideas. - **Conciseness:** Active voice sentences are often shorter and more to the point, improving the flow and readability of your text. - **Focus on agency:** Academic writing emphasizes critical thinking and analysis. Active voice helps highlight the actors and agents involved in research and discussions. **Exceptions to the Rule:** While active voice is generally preferred, there are some instances where passive voice might be appropriate: - **Emphasis on the action or object:** When the focus is on the action itself rather than the doer, passive voice can be effective. For example, “The data was analyzed using statistical software.” - **When the subject is unknown or unimportant:** If the subject is unclear or irrelevant, passive voice can be a suitable option. For example, “The study was approved by the ethics committee.” - **Variety:** To avoid monotony, it’s okay to occasionally use passive voice for stylistic variation. However, ensure it doesn’t obscure meaning or weaken the overall impact of your writing. **Remember:** The choice between active and passive voice depends on the context and your intentions. When in doubt, opt for active voice for clarity, directness, and a more effective delivery of your academic ideas. **Bonus Tip:** Use powerful verbs and strong sentence structures to further enhance the impact of your active voice writing. # Sexist and other biased language Avoiding sexist and other biased language in formal writing is crucial for ensuring inclusivity and respect for diverse perspectives. Here are some key ways to achieve this: ## Awareness - **Recognize your own biases:** All humans have unconscious biases. Reflect on your own background and the messages you’ve internalized to identify your biases and potentially blind spots. - **Identify common biases:** Familiarize yourself with common types of bias, such as sexism, racism, ageism, ableism, and homophobia. ## Language choices - **Gender-neutral language:** Use gender-neutral language instead of assuming gender. Use “they” as a singular pronoun, replace gendered nouns with inclusive terms, and avoid unnecessary gendered modifiers. - **Inclusive nouns and pronouns:** Use terms that encompass everyone, such as “people,” “humanity,” “staff,” or “students” instead of gendered or exclusive terms. - **Active voice:** Prefer active voice to passive voice, as it highlights the actor and avoids potentially gendered pronouns. - **Focus on merit and abilities:** When describing individuals, focus on their skills, qualifications, and contributions rather than physical appearance or gender. - **Avoid stereotypes and generalizations:** Don’t make assumptions about individuals based on their group affiliation. Avoid language that reinforces negative stereotypes about any group. - “When referring to individuals whose identified pronouns are not known or when the gender of the generic or hypothetical person is irrelevant within the context, use the singular ´they´ to avoid making assumptions about an individual’s gender; avoid using combinations such as ´he or she´ and ´(s)he´ as alternatives to the singular ´they´” (Publication Manual of the APA, 2020, p. 140). ## Additional tips - **Use respectful language:** Avoid offensive or discriminatory language, even if it’s not explicitly targeting a specific group. - **Consult references:** Use style guides and dictionaries that offer guidance on inclusive language. - **Read critically:** Review your writing with a critical eye, searching for potential biases and opportunities for improvement. - **Seek feedback:** Get feedback from diverse readers who can point out any unintentional biases in your writing. **Remember:** Avoiding biased language is a continuous process. It requires both awareness and practice. By implementing these tips and fostering a critical mindset, you can write formal texts that are inclusive and respectful of all individuals and groups. Here are some resources for further learning: - APA Style Guide: [https://apastyle.apa.org/](https://apastyle.apa.org/) - National Center for Women & Information Technology: [https://ncwit.org/](https://ncwit.org/) - GLAAD Media Reference Guide: [https://glaad.org/reference/trans-terms/](https://glaad.org/reference/trans-terms/) # Emphasis or emphatic writing ## Why arrange words for emphasis in formal writing? In formal writing, clarity and persuasion are paramount. While factual accuracy reigns supreme, the effective delivery of your message can make all the difference. Arranging words for emphasis allows you to highlight key points, guide the reader’s attention, and strengthen your arguments. A strategically crafted sentence can resonate far more than a bland statement. ## Techniques for emphasis ### Effective subjects and verbs: - **Active Voice:** Opt for active voice to place the subject, the doer of the action, at the sentence’s forefront. This imbues the subject with agency and emphasizes its role. (“**The research** conclusively demonstrates…” vs. “It is conclusively demonstrated by the research…”) - **Strong Verbs:** Choose verbs that precisely and powerfully convey the action. A weak verb like “is” can be replaced with a more nuanced option (“suggests,” “reveals,” “establishes”). See [weak verbs](https://benjaminlstewart.com/weak-verbs/). - **Specificity:** Use specific nouns and verbs instead of vague generalizations. This adds concreteness and lends weight to your points. (“**The economic downturn**…” vs. “Things are not good with the economy…”) | | | |---|---| |Unemphatic|Emphatic| |was influential|influenced| |is a glorification|glorifies| |have a preference|prefer| |had the appearance|appeared, seemed| |made a claim|claimed| ### Sentence beginnings and endings: - **Opening Strong:** Start your sentence with the most crucial information. The beginning grabs the reader’s attention, so prioritize the key element there. (“**Despite initial skepticism**, the project proved successful…”) - **Climax or Conclusion:** Place the most important idea at the end of the sentence to leave a lasting impression. This creates a sense of closure and emphasizes the concluding point. (“The data, therefore, **irrefutably points to** a need for reform.”) - **Coordination and subordination** - **Coordination for [Parallelism](https://www.notion.so/uaabaelt/Parallelism.md):** Use [coordinating conjunctions](https://www.notion.so/uaabaelt/coordinating%20conjunctions) (and, or, but, etc.) to create parallel sentence structures. This adds rhythm and emphasizes the importance of each element equally. (“The findings are **both significant and far-reaching**.”) - **Subordination for Emphasis:** A [Subordinating (Adverbial) Clause](https://www.notion.so/uaabaelt/Subordinating%20\(Adverbial\)%20Clause.md) can highlight the main idea by providing supporting details or contrasting information. The main clause becomes the focal point in relation to the dependent clause. (“**While some challenges remain**, the overall outlook is positive.”) - **Additional tips** - **Figurative Language:** Carefully chosen metaphors, similes, and personification can inject vividness and draw attention to crucial points. However, use them sparingly when writing a formal text or when maintaining a formal tone. - **Repetition:** Repeating key words or phrases can reinforce their importance and create a sense of urgency. - **Questions:** Rhetorical questions can prompt reader reflection and emphasize the significance of a topic. Remember, effective word arrangement is an art, not a science. Experiment, refine, and find the approach that best suits your message and writing style. By strategically placing words, you can elevate your formal writing from merely informative to truly impactful. # Parallelism [https://youtu.be/qvDNvS2M3QA](https://youtu.be/qvDNvS2M3QA) ## What is parallelism? Parallelism is the repetition of similar grammatical structures in a sentence or paragraph. It is a powerful tool that can be used to make your writing more concise, clear, and emphatic. Parallelism can occur in a variety of ways: - Using the same verb tense for all items in a series. For example: - I like to swim, run, and bike. - Using the same pronoun case for all items in a series. For example: - The cat, dog, and bird are all my pets. - Using the same adjective form for all items in a series. For example: - The sky is blue, the grass is green, and the flowers are red. - Using the same adverb form for all items in a series. For example: - I quickly ran to the store, bought the milk, and returned home. - To avoid parallelism, it is important to make sure that all items in a series have the same grammatical structure. You can also check your writing for parallelism by reading it aloud. If you come across a series of items that do not have the same grammatical structure, you may need to revise your sentence. ## Tips for avoiding parallelism - - Make sure all items in a series have the same grammatical structure. - Read your writing aloud to check for parallelism. - Use a grammar checker to help you identify parallelism. - Parallelism can make your writing sound choppy and unprofessional. By following these tips, you can avoid parallelism and write clear, concise sentences. ## Examples of parallelism - I like to read, write, and sing. - The dog ran quickly, the cat jumped high, and the bird flew far. - The sky is blue, the grass is green, and the flowers are red. - I quickly ran to the store, bought the milk, and returned home. ## Examples of non-parallelism - I like to read, write, and sing songs. - The dog ran quickly, the cat jumped high, and the bird flew. - The sky is blue, the grass is green, and the flowers are beautiful. - I quickly ran to the store, bought the milk, and then went home. As you can see, parallelism can make your writing more concise, clear, and emphatic. By using parallelism in your writing, you can improve your communication skills and make your writing more effective. # Variety and details Sentences can vary between 10 to forty words, while usually averaging between 15-25. If too many sentences are too long, main ideas don’t stand out; if too many sentences are too short, ideas may seem equally important ([The Little Brown Compact Handbook: Jane E. Aaron: 9780321143242: Amazon.com: Books](https://www.amazon.com/Little-Brown-Compact-Handbook/dp/0321143248/ref=sr_1_10?dib=eyJ2IjoiMSJ9.PcnkGFtos05WNQrMt89cNM_MqnD_bGcSQWsEvn0lYLl5nFlQ4HfkD_OOaUs9V6UhDmVEYjxe5bz65KU3o-Z0V9rJYboYZb6WN8O3qc2RBgOX9wN7dlSwLCGwiEr6BPuieSzjil-PnafaWHkgYNk9lw.BX-0_sQhCBi1RAz4YwDLscpU2OiiJxhFpBt5TCWYgr4&dib_tag=se&keywords=The+little+brown+compact+handbook&qid=1705161222&sr=8-10)). Thus, vary the length of sentences throughout your text. To extend shorter sentences, consider adding phrases (See [Types Of Phrases](https://www.notion.so/uaabaelt/Types%20Of%20Phrases.md).), coordination, and subordination (See [Types Of Clauses](https://www.notion.so/uaabaelt/Types%20Of%20Clauses.md).). Also, consider modifying the beginning of the sentence. # Completeness ## Sentence Fragment [https://youtu.be/r-Wcr4Wgf7U](https://youtu.be/r-Wcr4Wgf7U) A sentence fragment is a group of words that looks like a sentence, but it is not a complete sentence because it lacks a subject, a verb, or a complete thought. Sentence fragments can occur in a variety of ways, including: Sentence fragments without a subject (i.e., incomplete sentences): - Went to the store and bought some milk. - Barking loudly at the mailman. - Is a beautiful day today. - Loves to play soccer. - Were late for the meeting. ## Sentence fragments without a verb phrase - The girl with the red dress (was dancing). - A book about ancient history (that I borrowed from the library). - In the middle of the night (he heard a strange noise). - Because of the storm (we had to cancel our plans). - The fastest runner in the school (who won the race). To avoid sentence fragments, it is important to make sure that every group of words (i.e., clause) you write has a subject, a verb, and a complete thought. You can also check your writing for sentence fragments by reading it aloud. If you come across a group of words that does not sound like a complete sentence, it is probably a fragment. Here are some tips for avoiding sentence fragments: - Make sure every group of words has a subject and a verb. - Make sure every group of words expresses a complete thought. - Read your writing aloud to check for sentence fragments. - Use a grammar checker to help you identify sentence fragments. Sentence fragments can make your writing sound choppy and unprofessional. By following these tips, you can avoid sentence fragments and write clear, concise sentences. The error code “FRAG” refers to sentence fragment and is considered a more serious type of writing error. Also it’s called a “sentence fragment”, fragments actually occur at the clause level: main clause, noun clause functioning as a subject or object, relative (adjective) clauses, and subordinating (adverbial) clauses. Refer to the [Writing Errors Code List](https://www.notion.so/uaabaelt/Writing%20Errors%20Code%20List). # Conciseness Conciseness in formal academic writing refers to expressing your ideas with the fewest words possible while maintaining clarity and precision. It eliminates unnecessary clutter and focuses on the essential information, making your writing more impactful and easier to understand. Here are 20 examples of wordy phrases and their concise counterparts: | | | |---|---| |**Wordy:**|**Concise:**| |In the event that…|If…| |It is important to note that…|Note that…| |There is a need for further research into…|More research is needed on…| |It has been observed that…|We observe that…| |In the process of doing something…|While doing something…| |On the basis of the evidence presented…|Based on the evidence…| |For the purpose of clarifying…|To clarify…| |As a consequence of…|Consequently…| |With the intention of…|To…| |It would appear that…|It seems that…| |There is a general tendency towards…|Generally, we see a…| |It is not possible to deny that…|Undeniably…| |In a similar fashion to…|Similarly…| |To a certain extent…|To some extent…| |One might argue that…|Arguably…| |The aforementioned findings…|These findings…| |In spite of the fact that…|Though…| |The primary reason for…|The main reason for…| |A significant number of…|Many…| |In the conclusion…|In conclusion…| Remember, conciseness doesn’t mean sacrificing depth or complexity. Aim for sentences that are clear, precise, and efficient in conveying your meaning. By applying these tips and actively seeking wordy phrases, you can significantly improve the tightness and readability of your formal academic writing. # Words and phrases to consider and avoid when writing an academic text When writing an academic text, it’s important to consider using language that is clear, precise, and appropriate for the audience. Here are some words and phrases to consider and avoid: ## Words and Phrases to Consider - **Precise Terminology**: Use specific and precise terminology relevant to the field of study. - **Clear and consistent Definitions**: Clearly define any technical terms or concepts that might be unfamiliar to the reader, but for those taking [Thesis Seminar](https://publish.obsidian.md/bnleez/09+PUBLISHED/Thesis+Seminar) or writing a five-paragraph essay, avoid drafting complete paragraphs with only definitions. Instead, define terms when necessary within the context of a [Topic sentence](https://publish.obsidian.md/bnleez/09+PUBLISHED/Topic+sentence). Also, be consistent when certain terms: _activities, tasks, techniques, strategies, methods, approaches_, etc. - **Logical Connectors**: Use logical connectors such as “therefore,” “however,” and “moreover” to connect ideas and improve coherence. See also [Sentence Connectors by Category](https://www.notion.so/uaabaelt/Sentence%20Connectors%20by%20Category). - **Academic Language**: Utilize formal and academic language to convey authority and credibility. - **Citations and References**: Include proper citations and references to support your arguments and give credit to original sources. (See [APA Guide](https://publish.obsidian.md/bnleez/09+PUBLISHED/APA+Guide).) ## Words and Phrases to Avoid - **Personal pronouns**: You should avoid using “I”, “me”, “my”, “you”, “your”, or “we” in academic writing, as they make your arguments sound subjective and personal. Instead, you should use impersonal expressions such as “one”, “the author”, “the researcher”, or “this paper”. - **Clichés**: Clichés are overused expressions that lack originality and impact. They are not suitable for academic writing, as they make your writing sound informal and vague. Examples of clichés are “in this day and age”, “the bottom line”, “a dime a dozen”, or “at the end of the day”. You should avoid clichés and use more specific and accurate terms instead. - **Contractions and abbreviations**: Contractions are shortened forms of words, such as “isn’t”, “can’t”, “doesn’t”, or “would’ve”. You should avoid contractions and abbreviations in academic writing, as they make your writing sound informal and colloquial. You should write out the full words or phrases instead, such as “is not”, “cannot”, “does not”, “would have”, “for example”, “that is”, “and so on”, or “as soon as possible”. Abbreviations are shortened forms of words or phrases, such as “e.g.”, “i.e.”, “etc.”, or “ASAP”. Abbreviations of technical terms may be used sparingly if they are written out first, then abbreviated thereafter. For example, English language learner (ELL); then, when the term is used again, use, “ELL”. Notice in this example that “language learner” is all in lowercase. - **Weak modifiers and overused adverbs**: Weak modifiers are words that add little or no meaning to your sentences, such as “very”, “really”, “quite”, or “basically”. Overused adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, but are used too frequently or unnecessarily, such as “clearly”, “obviously”, “significantly”, or “actually”. You should avoid weak modifiers and overused adverbs in academic writing, as they make your writing sound weak and redundant. You should use stronger and more precise words instead, or provide evidence to support your claims. - **Idioms**: Idioms are expressions that have a figurative meaning that is different from their literal meaning, such as “break a leg”, “hit the nail on the head”, “spill the beans”, or “bite the bullet”. You should avoid idioms in academic writing, as they make your writing sound informal and ambiguous. You should use literal and clear language instead, or explain the meaning of the idiom if you have to use it. - **Subjective language**: Minimize the use of subjective language such as “I believe”, “in my opinion”, “clearly”, etc. Stay in the third person. - **Exaggerations**: Avoid exaggerated or absolute statements without proper evidence or support. Avoid phrases like, “always”, “never”, “all”, “everyone”, “no one”, “it’s a fact”, “it is true” etc. - **Vague expressions**: Steer clear of vague expressions and ambiguous terms that may lead to confusion.